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Second Parent Adoption | New Hampshire

Can same-sex partners jointly adopt a child together in New Hampshire?

Yes, but probably only so long as they are married. In a 1987 case involving a straight couple, the New Hampshire Supreme Court ruled that New Hampshire’s adoption statute, which permits joint adoption by a “husband and wife,” ( NH RSA 170-B:4, I) does not allow two unmarried adults to adopt together.68 Although the language of the statute is gendered, a married same-sex couple should be allowed to adopt.

What is a second-parent adoption? Is it legal in New Hampshire?

A second-parent adoption is when one partner adopts the other partner’s biological child. Although New Hampshire law has no explicit prohibition against second-parent adoptions, the New Hampshire Supreme Court has yet to rule on the issue. While some second-parent adoptions have been granted by the lower courts, others have been denied. If you are an unmarried couple who has been denied the ability to petition for a second-parent adoption, please contact GLAD Answers.

However, there is some good news: New Hampshire law explicitly allows for step-parent adoption, whereby one spouse adopts the other’s biological child (NH RSA 170-B:4, IV(a)). Married same-sex couples can use this process to effectuate a second-parent adoption.

For more information about both adoption and second parent adoption see Adoption Questions and Answers.

What is the advantage of doing a second parent or joint adoption?

Both joint adoptions and second parent adoptions ensure your child has two legal parents, which often provides greater comfort and security to everyone involved. Depending on your particular family situation, the law may not recognize both partners as legal parents without an adoption. In these cases, the non-legal parent needs special permission to make medical decisions for the child or attend school meetings, and is at risk of losing custody if the couple splits up.

Adoption allows a non-legal parent to become a legal parent, entitled to make decisions for the child without special authorization. It also permits the adoptive parent to automatically assume custody of the child if their partner dies. Likewise, if the adoptive parent dies, the child will have the right to inherit from them even absent a will, and may be able to collect social security survivor benefits.

Finally, if a couple separates, adoption ensures that both parents have the right to custody and visitation, and that any disputes will be decided based on what is in the best interests of the child rather than on who is the legal parent.

What is the difference between joint, second-parent (also known as co-parent) and single-parent adoptions?

A joint adoption is when both partners adopt a child together at the same time. A second-parent adoption is when one partner adopts the other partner’s child. A single-parent adoption is when a single individual adopts a child. All three of these are legal in Connecticut.

Who is a legal parent?

A biological parent who has a relationship with their child is a legal parent. An adoptive parent is similarly a legal parent.

Even without a biological or adoptive connection, certain individuals are presumed to be legal parents by law. For instance, a man is presumed to be a father if he is married to the child’s mother or marries her after the child’s birth and acknowledges paternity in writing (NH RSA 168-B:3, I(a)). Although the statute is gendered, it should apply equally to same-sex couples (see, NH RSA 23:3 (“gender-specific terms relating to the marital relationship or familiar relationships … shall be construed to be gender-neutral for all purposes throughout New Hampshire law)).

Similarly, parentage is presumed when a person “receives the child into [their] home and openly holds out the child as [their] child” (NH RSA 168-B:3, I(d)). In a groundbreaking 2014 case, In Re Guardianship of Madelyn B. (166 N.H. 453 (2014)), the New Hampshire Supreme Court established that this presumption applies equally to same-sex parents. The court also held that a lack of biological connection did not bar the application of the presumption, since the “presumptions are driven not by biolog[y]…but by the state’s interest in the welfare of the child and the integrity of the family” (Id. at 462). GLAD and co-counsel Kysa Crusco represented the plaintiff in the case, a lesbian non-birth mother seeking to establish legal parentage of her daughter.

While this decision is an incredibly important victory for all LGBT families, having to go through a court to establish parenthood is painful and costly. Couples are strongly encouraged to obtain legal recognition of parent-child relationships outside of court. For more information, see GLAD’s publication, Protecting Families: Standards for LGBT Families.

Do we need to do a second-parent adoption if we are married or have a civil union?

A second parent adoption is the best way to ensure the ongoing parental rights of both partners. Even if New Hampshire law presumes you are a legal parent, another state may not respect that presumption if you or your partner moves. By contrast, adoption is a court judgment creating a parent-child relationship and is very likely to be respected by other states, even if these states are otherwise hostile to same-sex couples parenting.

Miller-Jenkins Sidebar

Relying on a partner’s good will, or even on the fact that a child was born into a marriage or civil union, is not the best way to ensure the ongoing rights of both parents if a couple later separates. A case in point is Miller-Jenkins v. Miller-Jenkins. This case has been in litigation since 2004, has involved two state Supreme Courts (Vermont and Virginia), and has already made several trips to the U.S. Supreme Court. Proceedings are ongoing.

In that case, Janet and Lisa had a child, Isabella, while they were in a civil union. Janet did not adopt. After the couple separated, Lisa moved to Virginia and used both the lack of an adoption, and Virginia’s laws hostile to same-sex relationships to thwart Janet’s contact with their daughter. Finally, however, the Virginia courts agreed that the Vermont courts had the authority to make custody and visitation decisions.

After many attempts to get Lisa to allow Janet visitation rights, in November, 2009, the Vermont Family Court issued an order granting Janet responsibility for the day-to-day care of Isabella while granting Lisa liberal visitation rights. The transfer of custody was to have taken place on January 1, 2010. However, Lisa failed to appear at the appointed time, and an arrest warrant was issued.  Lisa and Isabella still have not been found.

GLAD and local counsel represented Janet in the Vermont proceedings. For more information about the case, go to https://www.glad.org/work/cases/miller-jenkins-v-miller-jenkins.

Does New Hampshire have laws that pertain to surrogacy?

Yes. In 2014, the New Hampshire General Court passed Senate Bill 353, An Act Relative to Surrogacy (NH RSA 168-B, available at http://www.gencourt.state.nh.us/legislation/2014/SB0353.html), which updated New Hampshire’s surrogacy law to reflect advances in assisted reproductive technologies. Previously New Hampshire law allowed surrogacy only when the intended mother’s eggs were used, and only when the intended parents were married. The new Act, which is one of the most comprehensive and forward-looking surrogacy laws in the country, allows all individuals to become parents via surrogacy regardless of marital status or sexual orientation.

The Act also simplified the legal process for intended parents, establishing standardized criteria for gestational carrier agreements and ensuring that all parties are legally protected. It sets minimum requirements for gestational carrier agreements and recognizes that these agreements are legally enforceable contracts. However, it is important to note that the Act allows a surrogate to keep the child if she executes a signed writing of her intention and delivers it to the intended parents at least 72 hours prior to the birth (see NH RSA 168-B:25, I-IV).

If same-sex parents raise a child together, but only one is the “legal” parent, then what rights does the non-legal parent have vis-à-vis the child?

These are tricky cases, but a non-legal parent may be able show that they stand in loco parentis to their child, entitling them to a limited number of rights, including the ability to intervene in custody proceedings. To establish in loco parentis, an individual must show that they admitted the child into their family and treated the child as a family member, forming a “psychological parent-child relationship.”

Short of second parent adoption, how can a family protect the interests of the child vis-à-vis their non-legal parent?

There are a number of steps which can be taken, although none offer the security of a second parent adoption.

  1. Co-parenting agreement: A co-parenting agreement is an agreement setting out the parents’ expectations about each other’s roles and their plans in the event of separation, disability, or death. While these agreements may not always be given full effect by courts, which are bound to make custody and visitation decisions based on the child’s best interests, they are important indicators of what the couple believed was in the best interests of the child and may influence a court’s ultimate decision.
  2. Co-guardianship: A legal parent may choose to name the non-legal parent as a co-guardian. This process allows the non-legal parent to make the same kinds of decisions for the child that a legal parent makes, including medical decisions (see NH RSA 463:10 (allowing appointment of appropriate persons, including “co-guardians may be appointed when in the best interests of the minor”), 12 (rights of guardian)). The best interest of the child standard controls appointments of guardians (NH RSA 463:8), and a guardian must file annual reports on the minor’s welfare (NH RSA 463:12). This status is not permanent and any person, including the legal parent, may petition to have a guardian removed (NH RSA 463:14-16).
  3. Wills: A legal parent may use their will to nominate a guardian to take custody of the child upon the parent’s death. These wishes are given strong preference by courts. However, if the child has another legal parent living, then that person will have priority over the nominated guardian.

Public Accommodations | Discrimination | Massachusetts

What is a “place of public accommodation”?

A place that holds itself open to, and accepts the patronage of the general public is a place of public accommodation subject to Massachusetts non-discrimination laws (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 272, sec. 92A). This definition is intentionally broad and may include a motel, restaurant, rest area, highway or hospital, as just a few examples.

What does the law say about discrimination in places of public accommodation?

Such places may not discriminate, or make any distinctions, or impose any restrictions because of a person’s sexual orientation or gender identity. “[W]hoever aides or incites” such discriminatory treatment may also be penalized under the law (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 272, sec. 98).

Example: women, who were attacked by a used car dealer when he realized they were lesbians, stated a claim under the law and were awarded damages in a settlement.

Example: two women who kissed on a bus and were then forced off of the bus by the driver were protected by the law because the driver did not order off of the bus a heterosexual couple who were kissing were awarded damages (Rome v. Transit Express, 19 Mass. Discrim. Law Rptr. (M.D.L.R.) 159 (1997), affirmed, 22 M.D.L.R. 88 (2000)).

Example: couples who were forcibly ejected from a night club because customers were uncomfortable with their being physically affectionate were awarded damages (Stoll et al. v. State Street Stock Exchange, Inc., 18 M.D.L.R. 141 (1996)).

Does Massachusetts have an anti-discrimination law protecting LGBTQ+ individuals from discrimination in places of public accommodation?

Yes. Since 1990, Massachusetts has prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation in public and private employment, housing, public accommodations, credit, and services (see generally Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B). Other areas of the law (e.g. education and insurance) also prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation.

Recently, these laws have been extended to protect transgender people. In 2011, Governor Deval Patrick signed a historic executive order prohibiting discrimination based on gender identity and expression in state employment (Mass. Exec. Order. No. 526 (Feb. 17, 2011), MA Executive Order 526). In 2012, Massachusetts amended its anti-discrimination laws to prohibit discrimination based on gender identity in public and private employment, housing, credit, education, and services—but not public accommodations. Finally, in 2016, Massachusetts passed the long-awaited transgender public accommodations bill, protecting transgender people from discrimination in restaurants, libraries, hotels, malls, public transportation, and beyond (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 272, secs. 92A, 98). For further information about the bill, see GLAD’s MA Public Accommodations Q&A, at www.glad.org/current/post/ma-public-accommodations-q-a.

Do the laws also protect people perceived to be LGBTQ+ in places of public accommodation?

Yes. Massachusetts non-discrimination law defines “sexual orientation” as “having an orientation for or being identified as having an orientation for heterosexuality, bisexuality or homosexuality” (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 3(6)). This language has been interpreted to include discrimination based on perception. For example, if a person is fired because they are perceived to be gay, they may invoke the protection of the anti-discrimination law regardless of their actual orientation.

Similarly, the law defines “gender identity” as:

[A] person’s gender-related identity, appearance or behavior, whether or not that gender-related identity, appearance or behavior is different from that traditionally associated with the person’s physiology or assigned sex at birth… (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 4, sec. 7(59) (emphasis added)).

What protections exist for transgender people in places of public accommodation?

In 2016, Massachusetts passed the transgender public accommodations law, making gender identity an explicitly protected class. This means that transgender people are protected against discrimination in public accommodations, and may file a complaint against any person or entity perpetuating said discrimination.

How do I file a complaint of discrimination under Massachusetts law?

You may file in person or in writing at the Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination (MCAD). The MCAD prefers for people to file in person, unless an attorney has prepared the complaint for them. Call in advance to set up an appointment and find out what you need to bring.

Boston: (617) 994-6000, One Ashburton Place, Room 601.

Springfield: (413) 739-2145.

Worcester: (508) 799-8010.

The complaint must be under oath, state the name and address of the individual making the complaint (“the complainant’) as well as the name and address of the entity he or she is complaining against (“the respondent”). The complaint must set out the particulars of the alleged unlawful acts and (preferably) the times they occurred.

Do I need a lawyer?

No. The process is designed to allow people to represent themselves. However, GLAD strongly encourages people to find lawyers to represent them throughout the process. Not only are there many legal rules governing the MCAD process, but employers and other defendants are likely to have legal representation.

What are the deadlines for filing a complaint of discrimination?

Complaints of discrimination must be filed at the MCAD within 300 days of the last discriminatory act or acts. There are very few exceptions for lateness, and GLAD encourages people to move promptly in filing claims.

What happens after a complaint is filed with the MCAD?

The MCAD assigns an investigator to look into your case. The parties may engage in limited “discovery” – a legal process which allows the other side to examine the basis of your claim and allows you to examine their justifications and defenses. This is conducted through written questions (interrogatories), requests for documents, and depositions. Ultimately, if the case is not dismissed for technical reasons, a Commissioner will decide if there is probable cause to credit your allegations.

If probable cause is found in an employment, credit, services, or public accommodations case, the case will be sent for “conciliation” or settlement proceedings. If negotiations fail to produce a settlement agreeable to all parties, the case proceeds further with more discovery and possibly a trial type hearing.

Even before probable cause is determined in a housing case, the MCAD may go to court to seek an order forbidding the respondent from selling, renting, or otherwise disposing of the property at issue while the case is pending. Once probable cause is found, the respondent must be notified of its right to have its case heard in court rather than at the MCAD (33 Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 5).

If probable cause is found lacking, the case is over unless you appeal the “lack of probable cause” finding. There are special rules and
time constraints on appeals within the MCAD that must be observed strictly.

What are the legal remedies the MCAD may award for discrimination if an individual wins their case there?

The remedies for a successful complainant may include, for employment cases, hiring, reinstatement or upgrading, backpay, restoration in a labor organization, and front pay. In housing cases, remedies may include damages (expenses actually incurred because of unlawful action related to moving, storage, or obtaining alternate housing) and civil fines to be paid to the state. In public accommodations cases, the MCAD may order civil fines to be paid to the state. In all cases, the remedies may also include emotional distress damages, attorneys’ fees, cease and desist orders, and other relief that would fulfill the purposes of the anti-discrimination laws (e.g. training programs, posting of notices, allowing person to apply for credit on nondiscriminatory terms, allowing person non-discriminatory access to and use of services).

Can I also file a complaint a discrimination complaint with a federal agency?

Yes, in many cases. Federal employment non-discrimination law, called Title VII, applies to employers with at least 15 employees. Complaints must be filed within 180 days of the discriminatory act with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). However, if you initially institute your complaint with MCAD and indicate that you wish to have the complaint cross-filed with the EEOC, then the time limit is extended to the earlier of 300 days or 30 days after MCAD has terminated the case (United States Code 42 sec. 2000e-5(e)(1)). (People who work for federal agencies are beyond the scope of this publication.)

Someone who brings a claim of discrimination may sometimes pursue protections under both state and federal law. This is true because there may be overlapping provisions of state and federal law. For example, Title VII forbids employment discrimination based on race, sex, age, religion, and disability (which includes HIV status), but does not expressly forbid discrimination based on “sexual orientation” or “gender identity.”

Recently, however, a growing number of courts and government agencies have taken the position that Title VII’s proscription against sex discrimination encompasses discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity (See, e.g., United States & Dr. Rachel Tudor v. Southeastern Oklahoma State University, 2015 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 89547 (2015) (denying motion to dismiss professor’s Title VII complaint that school had subjected her to a hostile work environment based on her gender identity)). In two separate decisions in 2012 and 2016, the EEOC itself concluded that sexual orientation discrimination, gender identity discrimination, and sex discrimination are one and the same, since the latter two are based on preferences, assumptions, expectations, stereotypes, and norms associated with masculinity and femininity (See Macy v. Holder, EEOC Appeal No. 0120120821 (Apr. 20, 2012); Baldwin v. Foxx, EEOC Appeal No. 0120133080 (July 15, 2015)). Although the EEOC’s decisions are not binding on the courts, many have used similar reasoning in affirming Title VII’s applicability to discrimination based on gender identity and sexual orientation (See, e.g., Smith v. City of Salem, 378 F.3d 566 (6th Cir. 2004) (holding that Title VII prohibits discrimination against transgender people based on gender stereotyping); Videckis v. Pepperdine Univ., 150 F. Supp. 3d 1151, 1160 (C.D. Cal. 2015) (holding “sexual orientation discrimination is a form of sex or gender discrimination”)).

GLAD recommends that, where there may be overlapping state and federal jurisdiction, you explore filing with MCAD first but keep in mind the possibility of pursuing a federal claim as well. If you have a sexual orientation or gender identity complaint, you should check off “sex” as well as “sexual orientation” or “gender identity” as the bases for your claim and request that MCAD cross-file your complaint with the EEOC.

Are there other options for filing a complaint for discrimination?

Possibly yes, depending on the facts of your particular situation.

  1. Local Agencies: Several cities and towns have their own local non-discrimination laws and agencies with which you can file a complaint in addition to filing at the MCAD. Sometimes the MCAD allows the local agency to investigate the case instead of the MCAD, which might produce advantages in time and accessibility of staff. Cambridge and Boston have the most developed local agencies, although Newton, Somerville, Worcester and Springfield also have some staff for certain kinds of complaints. Even if you file with the local agency, you must still file with the MCAD within 300 days of the last act of discrimination in order for your case to be processed at all.
  2. State or Federal Court: After filing with the MCAD or EEOC, or both, as discussed above, a person may decide to remove their discrimination case from those agencies and file the case in court. There are rules about when and how this must be done (See e.g., Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 9).

In addition, you may wish to file a court case to address other claims which cannot be appropriately handled by discrimination agencies. For example, if you are fired in violation of a contract, or fired without the progressive discipline promised in a handbook, or fired for doing something the employer doesn’t like but which the law requires, these matters are beyond the scope of what the agencies can investigate and instead the matter should be pursued in court. Similarly, if your claim involves a violation of constitutional rights—for instance, if you are a teacher or governmental employee who believes your free speech or equal protection rights were violated—then those matters must also be heard in court.

What can I do to prepare myself before filing a complaint of discrimination?

Contact GLADAnswers at www.GLADAnswers.org or by phone at 1-800-455-4523 (GLAD) any weekday to discuss options.

As a general matter, people who are still working with or residing under discriminatory conditions have to evaluate how filing a case will affect their job or housing, and if they will be able to handle those possible consequences. Of course, even if a person has been fired or evicted, they may decide it is not worth it to pursue a discrimination claim. This is an individual choice, which should be made after gathering enough information and advice to make an informed decision.

Some people prefer to meet with an attorney to evaluate the strength of their claims before filing a case. It is always helpful to bring the attorney an outline of what happened, organized by date and with an explanation of who the various players are (and how to get in touch with them).

Second Parent Adoption | Connecticut

What is the difference between joint, second-parent, and single-parent adoptions?

A joint adoption is when both partners adopt a child together at the same time. A second-parent adoption is when one partner adopts the other partner’s child. A single-parent adoption is where a single individual adopts a child.

Can same-sex partners together adopt a child in Connecticut?

Yes.  A couple with a marriage or civil union must generally adopt a child not born into the relationship as a couple (Conn. Gen. Stat. sec. 45a-732 (married person cannot adopt unless spouse adopts jointly, unless probate court finds sufficient reason for spouse not to adopt)). A couple who does not have a marriage or civil union can both become legal parents of a child through a process, called “second parent adoption,” whereby one adopts (or gives birth to the child), and then the second parent adopts (Conn. Gen. Stat. sec. 45a-724(a)(3)).

What is the advantage of doing a second parent adoption or joint adoption?

Both joint adoptions and second parent adoptions ensure your child has two legal parents, which often provides greater comfort and security to everyone involved. Depending on your particular family situation, the law may not recognize both partners as legal parents without an adoption. In these cases, the non-legal parent needs special permission to make medical decisions for the child or attend school meetings, and is at risk of losing custody if the couple splits up.

Adoption allows a non-legal parent to become a legal parent, entitled to make decisions for the child without special authorization. It also permits the adoptive parent to automatically assume custody of the child if their partner dies. Likewise, if the adoptive parent dies, the child will have the right to inherit from them even absent a will, and may be able to collect social security survivor benefits.

Finally, if the couple separates, adoption ensures that both parents have the right to custody and visitation, and that any disputes will be decided based on what is in the best interests of the child rather than on who is the legal parent.

Do we need to do a second-parent adoption if we are married or in a civil union?

A second parent adoption is the best way to ensure the ongoing parental rights of both parents. While Connecticut law presumes that a child born into a marriage or a civil union is the child of both spouses (see Barse v. Pasternak, 2015 Conn. Super. LEXIS 142 (2015) (legal presumption that child born into wedlock is the legitimate child of the mother and mother’s spouse extends to same-sex couples, even if the spouse did not conceive or adopt the child or comply with artificial insemination statutes)), another state may not respect that presumption if you or your partner moves. By contrast, adoption is a court judgment creating a parent-child relationship and is very likely to be respected by other states, even if these states are otherwise hostile to same-sex couples parenting.

Miller-Jenkins Sidebar

Relying on a partner’s good will, or even on the fact that a child was born into a marriage or civil union, is not the best way to ensure the ongoing rights of both parents if a couple later separates. A case in point is Miller-Jenkins v. Miller-Jenkins. This case has been in litigation since 2004, has involved two state Supreme Courts (Vermont and Virginia), and has already made several trips to the U.S. Supreme Court. Proceedings are ongoing.

In that case, Janet and Lisa had a child, Isabella, while they were in a civil union. Janet did not adopt. After the couple separated, Lisa moved to Virginia and used both the lack of an adoption, and Virginia’s laws hostile to same-sex relationships to thwart Janet’s contact with their daughter. Finally, however, the Virginia courts agreed that the Vermont courts had the authority to make custody and visitation decisions.

After many attempts to get Lisa to allow Janet visitation rights, in November, 2009, the Vermont Family Court issued an order granting Janet responsibility for the day-to-day care of Isabella while granting Lisa liberal visitation rights. The transfer of custody was to have taken place on January 1, 2010. However, Lisa failed to appear at the appointed time, and an arrest warrant was issued.  Lisa and Isabella still have not been found.

GLAD and local counsel represented Janet in the Vermont proceedings. For more information about the case, go to https://www.glad.org/work/cases/miller-jenkins-v-miller-jenkins

If I am a parent who has signed an Acknowledgement of Parentage, do I also need to do a second-parent adoption?

No. A parent who has signed an Acknowledgement of Parentage should not need to do a co-parent adoption to establish parentage. An Acknowledgement of Parentage establishes legal parentage under state law, is the equivalent of a judgment of parentage under state law and gives you all the rights and duties of a parent. Under federal law, an Acknowledgement of Parentage is the equivalent of a judicial decree of parentage and should be recognized in all states.

Since expanded access to acknowledgments of parentage is an emerging development, some parents might feel more comfortable also completing a second parent adoption in addition to or instead of an Acknowledgment of Parentage. To understand what is best for your family, individualized legal advice is recommended.

If same-sex parents raise a child together, but only one is the “legal” parent, then what rights does the non-legal parent have vis-à-vis the child?

As a general matter, the rights of a non-legal parent are limited. If a couple is unmarried, the law permits a non-legal parent to petition the Superior Court for visitation (but not custody) (Conn. Gen. Stat. sec. 46b-59). The court will grant visitation if it finds that: (1) a parent-like relationship exists between the non-legal parent, and (2) denying visitation would cause real and significant harm (Conn. Gen. Stat. sec. 46b-59(b)). Several Connecticut courts have allowed lesbian co-parents the right to visit with their children following a separation (see e.g. Antonucci v. Cameron, 25 Conn. L. Rptr. 509 (Conn. Super. Ct. Dept., Sept. 24, 1999) (allowing visitation to lesbian co-parent where visitation is in the best interests of the child); Laspina-Williams v. Laspina-Williams, 46 Conn. Supp. 165, 742 A.2d 840 (1999) (denying motion to dismiss of biological mother in co-parent visitation case)). A visitation award does not come with any child support obligations, but if support is offered, a legal parent may accept it.

Regardless of the status of a person’s legal rights, it is critical to remember that children form strong attachments to their parental caregivers regardless of legal labels. Separating a child from a person who has acted as their parent can be a devastating loss. Moreover, court proceedings to establish visitation will be painful and costly, so anything people can do outside of court to make decisions together about a child’s interests is strongly encouraged. See GLAD’s publication: Protecting Families: Standards for LGBT Families at Protecting Families: Standards for LGBT Families.

Short of second parent adoption, how can a family protect the interests of the child vis-à-vis their non-legal parent?

There are a number of steps which can be taken, although none offer the security of a second parent adoption.

Co-parenting Agreement: A co-parenting agreement is an agreement setting out the parents’ expectations about each other’s roles and their plans in the event of separation, disability, or death. While these agreements may not always be given full effect by courts, which are bound to make custody and visitation decisions based on the child’s best interests, they are important indicators of what the couple believed was in the best interests of the child and may influence a court’s ultimate decision.

Wills: A legal parent may nominate a guardian to take custody of the child upon the parent’s death. These wishes are given strong preference by courts. However, if the child has another legal parent living, then that person will have priority over the nominated guardian.

Power of Attorney: A legal parent may choose to grant the non-legal parent power of attorney over the child, which allows the non-legal parent to make medical or financial decisions. Power of attorney documents should be updated regularly.

Intimate Partner Violence | Maine

What is domestic violence?

Domestic violence may take many forms. Generally, domestic violence is a pattern of coercive behavior in which one person attempts to control another through threats or actual use of tactics, which may include any or all of the following: physical, sexual, verbal and psychological abuse.

Under the law, “abuse” means that any of the following have occurred between people who are “family, household members or dating partners”:

  • Attempting to cause or causing bodily injury or offensive physical contact;
  • Attempting to place or placing another in fear of bodily injury through any course of conduct, including, but not limited to, threatening, harassing or tormenting behavior;
  • Compelling, by force, threat of force, or intimidation, a person to engage in conduct, such as causing another to engage involuntarily in sexual relations by force, or to abstain from conduct in which they have a right to engage;
  • Restricting another person’s movement, by knowingly removing them from home, work or school, or moving them a substantial distance from where they were found, or confining the person;
  • Placing a person in reasonable fear that a crime will be committed by threatening them or another person that they will be committing a crime of violence against the person; or
  • Repeatedly and without reasonable cause following a person or being in the vicinity of their work, school or home (19-A Me. Rev. Stat. sec. 4002(1)).

Do the domestic violence laws apply to people in same-sex relationships?

Generally yes. The definition of “family, household members and dating partners” includes married couples, domestic partners or former domestic partners, people who are or have “liv[ed] together as spouses”, people who are sexual partners or are living together (or did so previously), as well as individuals currently or formerly dating each other, whether or not the individuals are or were sexual partners (19-A Me. Rev. Stat. sec 4002). The law applies equally to all people, but the application depends upon the nature of the relationship of the people involved.

How do I get a court order protecting me from an abusive partner?

To get protection, go to the District Court in the community where you live or where the abuser lives. The court clerk will have a packet of information for you to complete. There is no fee, and there is a means of keeping your address confidential from the public. You will have to allege abuse as defined above, and indicate where you think the abuser/defendant can be found so that he or she can be served with (given a copy of) the court papers. If the courts are closed, contact your local police who will locate a judge to help. On this basis, you may receive a temporary order of protection good for up to 21 days. In order for those orders to be enforceable, the police must serve a copy on the defendant/abuser, and a defendant cannot be arrested for violating orders if he or she has not been given a copy of them. The orders can restrain the defendant from coming near you or your children, keep the defendant away from your home, and/or place of employment or contacting you at all, and determine child custody issues on a short-term basis.

Violation of a protection order is a criminal offense (see generally 19-A Me. Rev. Stat. sec. 4001 et seq).

The temporary orders will indicate the date set for the court hearing at which you can try to extend your court orders. At this point, the defendant will tell his or her side of the story as well, and you can be called upon to answer questions. At this stage, both parties often have attorneys. If the Court determines the defendant has made a credible threat to the physical safety of you or a child in your household, the relief may be extended for up to two years.

If for some reason you decide not to go through with the order, it is important to show up in court on your assigned date and ask that the case be dismissed.

In addition, Maine’s harassment law described below may be useful for people who are experiencing harassment from a partner of the same sex.  An order preventing harassment can be taken out against anyone (5 Me. Rev. Stat. sec. 4651.  See also http://www.courts.state.me.us/publications_other/pa_ph-1207.pdf).

Where can I go to get help?

In Maine, local domestic violence projects across the state provide direct services to victims of domestic violence. The Maine Coalition to End Domestic Violence (MCEDV) is a coalition of the nine domestic violence projects in the state. There is a statewide domestic violence helpline at 866-834-HELP (4357). This number will direct victims to support centers in their county. These support centers also provide court advocacy. MCEDV maintains information for same-sex partners on their website at http://www.mcedv.org.

In addition to the local police, there are several other hotlines and on-line resources:

  • Sexual Assault Support Hotline, (800) 871-7741 (statewide, 24-hours), a complete listing of local member sexual assault centers can be found at http://www.mecasa.org/;
  • Office of the Maine Attorney General, 207-626-8800, http://www.maine.gov/ag/.

Does domestic violence play a role in parental rights and responsibilities decisions?

Yes. It is a factor the court must consider in allocating parental rights and responsibilities, and courts may provide conditions upon an abuser seeing his or her children (see generally 19-A Me. Rev. Stat. sec. 1653 (6)).

Intimate Partner Violence | Rhode Island

What is domestic violence?

Under the laws for the Family Court and the District Court, “domestic abuse” means the occurrence of one or more of the following acts between people who are family members, parents, or persons who are or have been in a substantive dating relationship within the past year, or against the minor child of one of the parties:

  • attempting to cause or causing physical harm;
  • placing another in fear of imminent serious physical harm;
  • causing another to engage involuntarily in sexual relations by force, threat of force, or duress; and
  • stalking or cyberstalking (see R.I. Gen. Laws § 15-15-1 (2) (family court); § 8-8.1-1(5) (district court)).

Note that the District Court provisions prohibit abuse between “cohabitants” and apply to substantive dating relationships regardless of the age of the parties, and are thus broader than the Family Court provisions.

Do the domestic violence laws apply to people in same-sex relationships?

Yes, if you are married or in a civil union.  Even if you are not, some same-sex relationships are covered under the definition of “substantive dating relationship.”  This includes relationships which are “significant and personal/intimate” based on the length of time of the relationship, the type of relationship, and the frequency of interaction between the parties (R.I. Gen. Laws § 15-5-1 (5) and § 8-8.1-1(5)). Other relationships may be covered if partners or former partners share legal parentage of a child (R.I. Gen. Laws § 15-5-1 (3)). As well, in the District Court, partners who live together or have lived together within the past three years may be considered “cohabitants” (R.I. Gen. Laws § 8-8.1-1 (1)).

How do I get a court order protecting me from an abusive partner?

The process is intended to be simple.  You may go to the appropriate court (District Court or Family Court) where you live, or if you have just fled your home, you can also file in the town where you used to live.  You will need to fill out a complaint alleging “abuse” as defined above.  The complaint is under oath, so everything you say must be true.  Try to put in as much detail as possible demonstrating why you feel threatened.

If you are in danger of harm, the Court can grant you a temporary protective order for not more than 21 days, which can include an order restraining your abuser from hurting you, barring him or her from entering your home, assigning child custody and requiring payment of child support.  If the courts are closed (nights, holidays, weekends), you can contact the local or state police, who will be able to contact a judge on call to handle these matters.

The defendant/abuser must be served with (given a copy of) the court order and notified of his or her right to contest the order in court. Once the order is issued, it is filed with the state Bureau of Criminal Identification and is effective state-wide.  Violation of a court order of which an abuser has notice is a criminal offense (R.I. Gen. Laws § 15-15-3 and § 8-8.1-3).

The Court will also assign a date for another hearing at which the temporary order will either be extended or dismissed.  At that time, both parties often have attorneys.  You should bring with you any witnesses who can substantiate the abuse, as well as copies of threatening letters, medical records, or any other documents which can show how you have been harmed and why you are afraid.  Expect to be asked questions by both the judge and the attorney(s) for the abuser/defendant.  You have the same right to ask questions.

If for some reason you decide not to go through with the legal process, you should show up in court anyway and ask that the order be dismissed.  If you don’t show up, it is possible that the court will think you are unreliable and may hold that against you should you need legal help in the future.

There are other laws which prohibit stalking, harassing and trespassing which may apply to you, but are beyond the scope of this document.

If I go to court, will I out myself for all purposes?

Not necessarily.  Some courts try to be sensitive to the fact that some people seeking orders may be closeted, or may be in a same-sex relationship which they do not want revealed.  If you proceed in the District Court rather than the Family Court, you do not have to claim that you are in a “substantive dating relationship,” but only that you are cohabitants to get a protective order, and thus you may be able to conceal your sexual orientation if you choose (R.I. Gen. Laws, § 8-8.1-1).

Where can I go to get help?

In addition to the local police and district attorney, you can call:

The Rhode Island Coalition Against Domestic Violence at (401) 467-9940, www.ricadv.org.  Helpline 24 hours every day at (800) 494-8100

Day One, the Sexual Assault and Trauma Resource Center, at (401) 421-4100 or (800) 494-8100, www.dayoneri.org.

Does domestic violence play a role in custody decisions?

Yes.  Evidence that a parent has in the past, or is presently, abusing the other parent or the child is a factor showing that that parent is not acting in the best interests of the child (R.I. Gen. Laws, § 15-5-16(g)).

Intimate Partner Violence | Vermont

What is domestic violence?

Under the laws of domestic relations, “abuse” includes causing or trying to cause physical harm; causing fear of imminent serious physical harm; or abuse to children, which includes physical injury, neglect, emotional maltreatment or sexual abuse; stalking; and sexual assault (see 15 V.S.A. § 1101(1)).

Do the domestic violence laws apply to people in same-sex relationships?

In most situations, yes.  These laws apply to abuse between family members, which includes civil union spouses, as well as between “household members,” which includes people who are living or have lived together, but also those who have or had a sexual relationship, or who are dating or have dated.  To determine whether a dating relationship exists or existed, the court looks to whether the relationship is/was of a romantic nature, how long it has been/was going on, how often the parties interact/ed, and, if the parties have broken up, how long ago the relationship ended (15 V.S.A. § 1101(2)).

How do I get a court order protecting me from an abusive partner?

You can file a complaint seeking relief from abuse in the family division of the superior court in the county in which you live, or, if you have just fled your home, in either your new or old county. There is no fee (15 V.S.A. § 1103(f)).

If you are in immediate danger from harm, you can file an application for a temporary order (15 V.S.A. § 1104). That application can be filed in the criminal, civil or family division of the superior court (15 V.S.A. § 1102(b)). All of the courts are required to have procedures for people to file these applications after regular court hours, or on weekends and holidays (15 V.S.A. § 1106(b)). Temporary orders are generally issued upon request, based on the existence of a relationship between victim and offender that is covered by the law and a credible allegation of abuse or threats of abuse.

The order, a copy of which must be given to the abuser, will state a time within ten days of its being issued for the defendant to contest it (15 V.S.A. § 1104(b)).  At the hearing, if the victim proves the abuse, the court will keep the order in effect and make other orders it deems necessary to keep the victim safe (15 V.S.A. § 1104(b)). Once an order is issued, it is filed with the Department of Public Safety’s abuse database.  Police and sheriff’s departments, as well as state police district offices are also required to maintain procedures to make personnel aware of the existence and contents of abuse prevention orders (15 V.S.A. § 1107).

The order will stay in effect for a fixed period of time, at the end of which the court may extend it for as long as it deems necessary to protect the victim.  The court does not have to find that abuse took place during the time covered by the order to extend it (15 V.S.A. § 1103(e)).

You don’t need a lawyer to get the temporary order, but it may be helpful to have one for later hearings if you think the abuser will contest the order.  The court administrators may be able to connect you with agencies that help victims seek relief and gain access to the courts (15 V.S.A. § 1106(b)).

If for some reason you decide not to go through with the legal process, you should show up in court anyway and ask that the order be dismissed.  Failure to show up might make the court think you are unreliable if you need legal help in the future.

Violation of an abuse order is a criminal offense and can result in the immediate arrest of the abuser, as well as imprisonment of up to six months and a fine of up to $1000 (15 V.S.A. § 1108(e)). It is worth noting that restraining orders do not restrict the abuse victim’s activities or contacts.

A victim may participate in an address confidentiality program, through which the Secretary of State gives the victim another address to use in order to keep the actual address confidential from the public (15 V.S.A. § 1152).

There are other laws that prohibit stalking, harassing and trespassing that may also apply to your situation, but are beyond the scope of this document.  For more information, you may wish to consult the Vermont Center for Crime Victim Services at 1-800-750-1213 (Toll Free in Vermont Only) or (803) 241-1250 or http://www.ccvs.state.vt.us/.

If I go to court, will I “out” myself for all purposes?

Not necessarily.  The courts try to be sensitive to the fact that some people seeking orders may be closeted, or may be in a same-sex relationship that they do not want revealed.  A relief-from-abuse order is a public record, however.

Where can I go to get help?

In addition to the local police and district attorney, you can contact the Vermont Network Against Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault at www.vtnetwork.org, at vtnetwork@vtnetwork.org (email) or 1-800-228-7395.  They can provide you with information and assistance and connect you to resources in your area.

Does domestic violence play a role in custody decisions?

Yes. Evidence that a parent has in the past, or is presently, abusing the other parent or the child is a factor showing that that parent is not acting in the best interests of the child (15 V.S.A. § 665(b)(9)).

Navigating Police Interactions | Massachusetts

I am often told by police to “move along” from public areas. Is that legal?

Not necessarily. If the area is public and not posted as having particular hours, you generally have a right to be there as long as you are engaged in lawful activity. Public places belong to everyone, and are also often places of public accommodation to which non-discrimination rules apply. Even if a police officer wants to deter crime, or suspects some kind of unlawful intent, they have no general right to request people to move from one place to another unless there is unlawful conduct (Commonwealth v. Carpenter, 325 Mass. 519, 521 (1950) (sauntering and loitering in public places is right of every person); Benefit v. City of Cambridge, 424 Mass. 918 (1997) (streets and other public areas are “quintessential public forums” for expression); Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 126 (1958)).

What are the general rules about interaction with police?

The presence of individuals who appear to be LGBT – whether because such individuals are displaying symbols such as a rainbow flag or pink triangle or for any other reason – should not trigger any special scrutiny by a police officer.

Police may, of course, approach a person, and make inquiries, but the officer can neither explicitly nor implicitly assert that the person must respond to their inquiries (Commonwealth v. Murdough, 428 Mass. 700 (1999)). Even if a person has been convicted of a past offense, or fails to respond, or responds in a way which does not satisfy the officer, that person cannot be arrested (Murdough, 428 Mass. at 703; Alegata v. Commonwealth, 353 Mass. 287, 300-01, 231 N.E.2d 201 (1967)).

If an officer has “reasonable suspicion” that a crime has been committed or is about to be committed, they may briefly detain an individual, or stop the person for purposes of investigation (Murdough, 428 Mass. at 763, Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 16 (1968)). An arrest can only occur upon “probable cause” that a crime has been committed (Murdough, 428 Mass. at 703).

What can I do if I believe I have been improperly treated by the police?

Complaints may be made to any individual police department for matters concerning its officers. Call GLAD if you need to find out how to make a complaint to the local police.

Complaints to the Massachusetts State Police may be made via a Citizens Response Report, or form SP-340, which can be completed online and sent electronically (see http://www.mass.gov/eopss/agencies/msp/citizen-concerns.html for more information) or mailed to The Massachusetts State Police, Division of Standards and Training/Citizen Response Reports, 470 Worcester Road Framingham, MA  01702. An officer assigned to the Division of Standards and Training will contact you upon receipt of your report (“Citizens Response Reports,” Public Safety, http://www.mass.gov/eopss/agencies/msp/citizen-concerns.html).

Please let GLAD know whenever you make a complaint so that we can track the responsiveness of the various police departments.

In some cases, you may decide to pursue a lawsuit, either because of injuries, improper detainment, or for some other reason. These matters are highly specialized, and GLAD can make attorney referrals. People can also register serious complaints with the Attorney General’s Office, Civil Rights Division.

Marriage | Vermont

Can same-sex couples marry in Vermont?

Yes. On April 7, 2009, Vermont became the first state to obtain marriage rights for same-sex couples through a legislative process rather than a court case.  The bill, S.115 An Act to Protect Religious Freedom and Recognize Equality in Civil Marriage (the “Marriage Act”) (See An Act Relating to Civil Marriage at:  http://www.leg.state.vt.us/docs/2010/bills/Passed/S-115.pdf), was passed by the legislature on April 3, 2009; vetoed by the Governor on April 6, 2009; and the veto was overridden by the Senate (23-5) and the House (100-49) on April 7, 2009.  The Marriage Act took effect on September 1, 2009.

This was the result of nearly 15 years of relentless work by Vermont Freedom to Marry, under the leadership of Beth Robinson. GLAD was pleased to have been able to provide some assistance and support to the effort.

Six years later, in Obergefell v. Hodges (135 S.Ct. 2584 (2015)), the U.S. Supreme Court made marriage equality a reality nationwide when it held that the U.S. Constitution guarantees same-sex couples the right to marry. GLAD’s own Mary Bonauto represented the plaintiffs during oral arguments. Post-Obergefell, all 50 states are required to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, and all states must respect the marriages of same-sex couples performed in other jurisdictions.

How does one get married in Vermont?

The process for getting married in Vermont requires the following basic steps:

  1. an eligible couple submits an application for a license in either the town or city in Vermont where one of the parties lives (out-of-state couples can go to any town or city clerk) (18 V.S.A. § 5131(a)(1));
  2. the couple must pay the applicable fee and receive a marriage license from the clerk;
  3. the couple must have the marriage solemnized (i.e., have a ceremony) within 60 days of filing the application (18 V.S.A. § 5131(b));
  4. once the ceremony has been performed, the person who performed it has 10 days to send the license back to the city or town where it was issued (18 V.S.A. § 5131(c)); and
  5. the clerk will then file the original (18 V.S.A. § 5131 (c)), and the couple can receive an official certificate of their marriage.

The detailed process for getting married in Vermont, whether you should enter a marriage, and what it all means are questions that are addressed in GLAD’s publication, How To Get Married In Vermont, at https://glad-org-wpom.nyc3.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/how-to-get-married-vt.pdf.

Can Vermont same-sex couples get married anywhere else?

Yes. Thanks to Obergefell v. Hodges, all states are required to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples.

Will Vermont respect my marriage? Will other states?

Yes. Vermont will respect the legal marriages of same-sex couples regardless of where the marriage was performed, just as all states will now respect the marriage of a same-sex couple married in Vermont.

Will the federal government respect my marriage?

Yes. Thanks to the recent demise of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) in Windsor v. United States (133. S.Ct. 2675 (2013)), the federal government will recognize and respect the legal marriages of same-sex couples.

DOMA, a federal statute which defined marriage exclusively as the union between one man and one woman, once prevented same-sex spouses from accessing the 1000+ federal laws pertaining to marriage, including taxes, Social Security (including SSDI and SSI), immigration, bankruptcy, FMLA, federal student financial aid, Medicaid, Medicare, veteran’s benefits, and TANF. Happily, in 2013 the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA as unconstitutional. GLAD filed the first challenge to DOMA in 2009, Gill v. OPM (699 F.Supp.2d 374 (2010)), and the legal framework developed in that case was used in many subsequent cases, Windsor included. GLAD was also responsible for coordinating the Windsor amici briefs.

Unfortunately, one issue that has yet to be definitively resolved by Windsor and Obergefell concerns spousal benefits and self-insured health plans. While New Hampshire state law prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation, self-insured health plans are governed by federal law. Title VII, the federal anti-discrimination statute, only prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin—sexual orientation is not explicitly included. As a result, some self-insured employers claim they can legally deny benefits to same-sex spouses.

Luckily, this issue is far from settled. Recently, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (“EEOC”) took the position that Title VII’s prohibition against ‘sex discrimination’ encompasses discrimination based on sexual orientation (see Baldwin v. Foxx, Agency No. 2012-24738-FAA-3 (July 15, 2015)).

If your employer is discriminating against you in spousal healthcare benefits on the basis of sexual orientation, contact GLAD Answers.

What steps can a couple take to legally safeguard their relationship in Vermont?

There are various legal documents that can protect a couple’s relationship, regardless of whether the couple has no formal legal relationship or is already in a marriage.

1. Relationship Agreement or Contract: Cohabitation agreements regarding property and finances provide a way for couples to sort out their affairs in writing before a separation. This kind of document serves a similar function to a prenuptial agreement. As long as the contract is not about sexual services and complies with the requisites for a valid contract, it has a good chance of being upheld as valid. Bear in mind that, as in any state, specific provisions concerning children may not be enforced according to their terms because it is always in the court’s power to determine the best interests of children. (See discussion below concerning parenting agreements)

2. Power of Attorney: Any competent person may appoint another person (such as one’s partner) as their “attorney-in-fact” for financial matters in the event the person becomes incapacitated or disabled.

This power of attorney can be extended to the time when the person is incapacitated if the power of attorney says, “This power of attorney shall not be affected by the subsequent disability or incapacity of the principal.” If no such appointment is made, then a “family” member will be empowered to make decisions for the disabled or incapacitated individual. A power of attorney does not include authority to make health care decisions.

A person may also indicate their preference regarding the appointment of a guardian — a longer-term appointment that applies to all areas of a mentally incapacitated person’s personal care and financial affairs (and courts consider the preference of the incapacitated person in appointing a guardian). The document indicating this preference should be executed with all of the formalities of a will and should be updated to keep track of all aspects of a person’s personal and financial situation.

3. Advance Directives for Health Care and Disposition of Remains: Under Vermont law, an individual may appoint an agent to make health care decisions for them upon incompetence, incapacity, or death and provide the agent with an advance directive that, for example, can:

a. direct the type of health care desired or not desired;

b. direct which life-sustaining treatments are desired or not desired;

c. identify persons with whom the agent should not consult or share information;

d. authorize the release of health information to other persons in addition to the agent;

e. make an anatomical gift pursuant to Vermont law;

f. nominate persons to serve (or not serve) as the individual’s guardian should that be needed;

g. direct the disposition of the person’s remains and the funeral arrangements.

Without an advance directive, medical providers and funeral directors look to a spouse or next of kin to make decisions. The advance directive can be revoked at any time by creating a new advance directive or by a clear expression of revocation. People often give a copy of their advance directive to their doctors and sometimes to family members.

4. Will: If a person who is neither married nor joined in a civil union, dies without a will, their property passes to: (1) their children or (2) their family. If the person wishes to provide for others, such as their partner, a will is essential. Even if a person has few possessions, they can name in the will who will administer their estate. If a person has children, they can nominate the future guardian of the children in a will.

Does a person need an attorney to get these documents?

GLAD recommends working with an attorney on these documents.

Although forms are available, the form may not be suited to your individual needs and wishes. Moreover, an attorney may be able to better help effectuate your goals, for example, by drafting a will in a way that is more likely to deter a will contest by unhappy family members, or an appointment of a health care agent with very specific instructions. In addition, an attorney may help to navigate the legal uncertainties flowing from the areas of overlap between these documents. GLAD Answers can provide referrals to attorneys who are members of GLAD’s Lawyer Referral Service.

Can I obtain Social Security survivor benefits if my spouse dies?

Yes, because as stated above, same-sex married couples are entitled to all the benefits provided to different-sex married couples.

However, until the Obergefell v. Hodges decision on June 26, 2015, many same-sex couples lived in states where unconstitutional marriage laws prevented same-sex couples from getting married. So when their spouse passed away, they were not able to meet the Social Security survivor benefit condition of having been married for 9 months.

To correct this unfairness, Lambda Legal filed two lawsuits, Ely v. Saul and Thornton v. Commissioner of Social Security, and was successful in obtaining a way for same-sex couples to file for Social Security survivor benefits who either never married (Ely v. Saul) or were finally able to marry but were married less than 9 months when their spouse passed away (Thornton v. Commissioner of Social Security). 

These two rulings allow same-sex couples, who were excluded from marriage because of discriminatory state laws and consequently were not eligible to apply for Social Security survivor benefits, to submit an application. However, the success of that application rests on providing enough documentation to prove to Social Security that the only reason they did not meet the 9-month requirement was because of the discriminatory state laws.

The following link gives more detailed information and has FAQs for each lawsuit and lists some of the ways you might be able to provide the documentation needed to qualify for the survivor benefit:

Information for Surviving Same-Sex Partners and Spouses Previously Excluded from Social Security Survivor’s Benefits Because of Unconstitutional State Marriage Laws | Lambda Legal

What happens if we need to end our marriage?

After Obergefell v. Hodges, same-sex spouses everywhere should be able to dissolve their marriages on the same terms as different-sex spouses. Vermont applies its divorce statutes to same-sex couples (See generally Solomon v. Guidry, 2016 VT 108, 155 A.3d 1218 (2016)).  However, spouses should note that when Vermont courts divide marital property and award alimony/maintenance, one of the factors a judge considers is the length of the marriage (15 V.S.A. § 751(b)(1)(division of property) and §752(b)(4)(maintenance)). Nonetheless, the court does include, as marital property, all property owned by “either or both of the parties, however or whenever acquired ….” (15 V.S.A. § 751(a)). So, for spouses whose partnership pre-dates marriage equality, the length of the marriage may not accurately reflect the true length of the relationship, resulting in an unbalanced division of assets.

If you are going through divorce proceedings in Vermont and believe your division of assets may be unfairly affected by length of marriage, contact GLAD Answers.

What standards should same-sex couples with children who are breaking up maintain?

Same-sex couples with children who are breaking up should:

  1. Support the rights of LGBTQ+ parents;
  2. Honor existing relationships regardless of legal labels;
  3. Honor the children’s existing parental relationships after the breakup;
  4. Maintain continuity for the children;
  5. Seek a voluntary resolution;
  6. Remember that breaking up is hard to do;
  7. Investigate allegations of abuse;
  8. Not allow the absence of agreements or legal relationships to determine outcomes;
  9. Treat litigation as a last resort; and
  10. Refuse to resort to homophobic/transphobic laws and sentiments to achieve a desired result.

For more detailed information about these standards see the publication Protecting Families: Standards for LGBTQ+ Families.

Housing | Discrimination | Massachusetts

Does Massachusetts have an anti-discrimination law protecting LGBT individuals from discrimination in housing?

Yes. Since 1990, Massachusetts has prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation in public and private employment, housing, public accommodations, credit, and services (see generally Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B). Other areas of the law (e.g. education and insurance) also prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation.

Recently, these laws have been extended to protect transgender people. In 2011, Governor Deval Patrick signed a historic executive order prohibiting discrimination based on gender identity and expression in state employment (Mass. Exec. Order. No. 526 (Feb. 17, 2011), MA Executive Order 526). In 2012, Massachusetts amended its anti-discrimination laws to prohibit discrimination based on gender identity in public and private employment, housing, credit, education, and services—but not public accommodations. Finally, in 2016, Massachusetts passed the long-awaited transgender public accommodations bill, protecting transgender people from discrimination in restaurants, libraries, hotels, malls, public transportation, and beyond (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 272, secs. 92A, 98). For further information about the bill, see GLAD’s MA Public Accommodations Q&A, at https://www.glad.org/current/post/ma-public-accommodations-q-a.

Do the laws also protect people perceived to be LGBT in housing?

Yes. Massachusetts non-discrimination law defines “sexual orientation” as “having an orientation for or being identified ashaving an orientation for heterosexuality, bisexuality or homosexuality” (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 3(6)). This language has been interpreted to include discrimination based on perception. For example, if a person is fired because they are perceived to be gay, they may invoke the protection of the anti-discrimination law regardless of their actual orientation.

Similarly, the law defines “gender identity” as:

[A] person’s gender-related identity, appearance or behavior, whether or not that gender-related identity, appearance or behavior is different from that traditionally associated with the person’s physiology or assigned sex at birth… (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 4, sec. 7(59) (emphasis added)).

What is prohibited by the housing anti-discrimination law in Massachusetts?

The housing laws are intended to prohibit discrimination by those engaged in most aspects of the housing business, including listing, buying, selling, renting, or financing housing, whether for profit or not (Mass. Gen. Laws, chapter 151B, sec. 4 (3B, 3C, 6, 7)). Most often, these claims involve a refusal by an owner, landlord, or real estate broker to sell, lease, or even negotiate with a person about the housing they desire to obtain (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 4 (6)(a)(public housing), sec. 7 (private housing)). But other practices are forbidden, too, such as inquiring into or making a record of a person’s sexual orientation, gender identity, marital status (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 4(6)(c)(public housing), sec. 4(7)(private housing)), or discriminating with respect to mortgage loans (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 4(3B)).

Are any landlords exempt from the housing anti-discrimination law?

The main exemption from the law is for owner-occupied buildings that have two units or less. The law is focused on protecting people in “multiple dwelling[s].” If a building only has two apartments and the owner lives in one of them, the exemption may apply (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 1 (11)). The other exemptions in this area of the law are fairly technical and relate to the definitions of “housing development,” “contiguously located housing,” and “other covered housing accommodations.”

How do I file a complaint of discrimination under Massachusetts law?

You may file in person or in writing at the Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination (MCAD). The MCAD prefers for people to file in person, unless an attorney has prepared the complaint for them. Call in advance to set up an appointment and find out what you need to bring.

Boston: (617) 994-6000, One Ashburton Place, Room 601.

Springfield: (413) 739-2145.

Worcester: (508) 799-8010.

The complaint must be under oath, state the name and address of the individual making the complaint (“the complainant’) as well as the name and address of the entity he or she is complaining against (“the respondent”). The complaint must set out the particulars of the alleged unlawful acts and (preferably) the times they occurred.

Do I need a lawyer?

No. The process is designed to allow people to represent themselves. However, GLAD strongly encourages people to find lawyers to represent them throughout the process. Not only are there many legal rules governing the MCAD process, but employers and other defendants are likely to have legal representation.

What are the deadlines for filing a complaint of discrimination?

Complaints of discrimination must be filed at the MCAD within 300 days of the last discriminatory act or acts. There are very few exceptions for lateness, and GLAD encourages people to move promptly in filing claims.

What happens after a complaint is filed with the MCAD?

The MCAD assigns an investigator to look into your case. The parties may engage in limited “discovery” – a legal process which allows the other side to examine the basis of your claim and allows you to examine their justifications and defenses. This is conducted through written questions (interrogatories), requests for documents, and depositions. Ultimately, if the case is not dismissed for technical reasons, a Commissioner will decide if there is probable cause to credit your allegations.

If probable cause is found, the case will be sent for “conciliation” or settlement proceedings. If negotiations fail to produce a settlement agreeable to all parties, the case proceeds further with more discovery and possibly a trial type hearing.

Even before probable cause is determined in a housing case, the MCAD may go to court to seek an order forbidding the respondent from selling, renting, or otherwise disposing of the property at issue while the case is pending. Once probable cause is found, the respondent must be notified of its right to have its case heard in court rather than at the MCAD (33 Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 5).

If probable cause is found lacking, the case is over unless you appeal the “lack of probable cause” finding. There are special rules and time constraints on appeals within the MCAD that must be observed strictly.

What are the legal remedies the MCAD may award for discrimination if an individual wins their case there?

The remedies for a successful complainant for housing cases may include damages (expenses actually incurred because of unlawful action related to moving, storage, or obtaining alternate housing) and civil fines to be paid to the state. In public accommodations cases, the MCAD may order civil fines to be paid to the state. In all cases, the remedies may also include emotional distress damages, attorneys’ fees, cease and desist orders, and other relief that would fulfill the purposes of the anti-discrimination laws (e.g. training programs, posting of notices, allowing person to apply for credit on nondiscriminatory terms, allowing person non-discriminatory access to and use of services).

Can I also file a complaint a discrimination complaint with a federal agency?

Yes, in many cases. Federal employment non-discrimination law, called Title VII, applies to employers with at least 15 employees. Complaints must be filed within 180 days of the discriminatory act with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). However, if you initially institute your complaint with MCAD and indicate that you wish to have the complaint cross-filed with the EEOC, then the time limit is extended to the earlier of 300 days or 30 days after MCAD has terminated the case (United States Code 42 sec. 2000e-5(e)(1)). (People who work for federal agencies are beyond the scope of this publication.)

Someone who brings a claim of discrimination may sometimes pursue protections under both state and federal law. This is true because there may be overlapping provisions of state and federal law. For example, Title VII forbids employment discrimination based on race, sex, age, religion, and disability (which includes HIV status), but does not expressly forbid discrimination based on “sexual orientation” or “gender identity.”

Recently, however, a growing number of courts and government agencies have taken the position that Title VII’s proscription against sex discrimination encompasses discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity (See, e.g., United States & Dr. Rachel Tudor v. Southeastern Oklahoma State University, 2015 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 89547 (2015) (denying motion to dismiss professor’s Title VII complaint that school had subjected her to a hostile work environment based on her gender identity)). In two separate decisions in 2012 and 2016, the EEOC itself concluded that sexual orientation discrimination, gender identity discrimination, and sex discrimination are one and the same, since the latter two are based on preferences, assumptions, expectations, stereotypes, and norms associated with masculinity and femininity (See Macy v. Holder, EEOC Appeal No. 0120120821 (Apr. 20, 2012); Baldwin v. Foxx, EEOC Appeal No. 0120133080 (July 15, 2015)). Although the EEOC’s decisions are not binding on the courts, many have used similar reasoning in affirming Title VII’s applicability to discrimination based on gender identity and sexual orientation (See, e.g., Smith v. City of Salem, 378 F.3d 566 (6th Cir. 2004) (holding that Title VII prohibits discrimination against transgender people based on gender stereotyping); Videckis v. Pepperdine Univ., 150 F. Supp. 3d 1151, 1160 (C.D. Cal. 2015) (holding “sexual orientation discrimination is a form of sex or gender discrimination”)).

GLAD recommends that, where there may be overlapping state and federal jurisdiction, you explore filing with MCAD first but keep in mind the possibility of pursuing a federal claim as well. If you have a sexual orientation or gender identity complaint, you should check off “sex” as well as “sexual orientation” or “gender identity” as the bases for your claim and request that MCAD cross-file your complaint with the EEOC.

LGBT people who are discriminated against in housing may also be able to file a complaint with the federal Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in addition to MCAD. For more information go to: http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/fair_housin g_equal_opp/LGBT_Housing_Discrimination.

Are there other options for filing a complaint for discrimination?

Possibly yes, depending on the facts of your particular situation.

  1. Local Agencies: Several cities and towns have their own local non-discrimination laws and agencies with which you can file a complaint in addition to filing at the MCAD. Sometimes the MCAD allows the local agency to investigate the case instead of the MCAD, which might produce advantages in time and accessibility of staff. Cambridge and Boston have the most developed local agencies, although Newton, Somerville, Worcester and Springfield also have some staff for certain kinds of complaints. Even if you file with the local agency, you must still file with the MCAD within 300 days of the last act of discrimination in order for your case to be processed at all.
  2. State or Federal Court: After filing with the MCAD or EEOC, or both, as discussed above, a person may decide to remove their discrimination case from those agencies and file the case in court. There are rules about when and how this must be done (See e.g., Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, sec. 9).

In addition, you may wish to file a court case to address other claims which cannot be appropriately handled by discrimination agencies. For example, if you are fired in violation of a contract, or fired without the progressive discipline promised in a handbook, or fired for doing something the employer doesn’t like but which the law requires, these matters are beyond the scope of what the agencies can investigate and instead the matter should be pursued in court. Similarly, if your claim involves a violation of constitutional rights—for instance, if you are a teacher or governmental employee who believes your free speech or equal protection rights were violated—then those matters must also be heard in court.

What can I do if my landlord evicts me because I filed a complaint of discrimination?

It is illegal for your landlord to retaliate or punish you because you filed a complaint. If they do so, you can file an additional complaint against them for retaliation. “Retaliation” protections cover those who participate in proceedings, oppose unlawful conduct, or state an objection to discriminatory conduct (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 151B, secs. 4(4), 4A. See also Provencher v. CVS Pharmacy, 76 F.E.P. Cases (BNA) 1569 (1st Cir. 1998)(upholding federal retaliation claim of gay man)).

As a general matter, people who are still working with or residing under discriminatory conditions have to evaluate how filing a case will affect their job or housing, and if they will be able to handle those possible consequences. Of course, even if a person has been fired or evicted, they may decide it is not worth it to pursue a discrimination claim. This is an individual choice, which should be made after gathering enough information and advice to make an informed decision.

Some people prefer to meet with an attorney to evaluate the strength of their claims before filing a case. It is always helpful to bring the attorney an outline of what happened, organized by date and with an explanation of who the various players are (and how to get in touch with them). If you are concerned about a housing matter, bring a copy of your lease, along with any notices and letters you have received from your landlord.

What can I do to prepare myself before filing a complaint of discrimination?

Contact GLAD Answers at www.GLADAnswers.org or by phone at 800-455-4523 (GLAD) any weekday to discuss options.

As a general matter, people who are still working with or residing under discriminatory conditions have to evaluate how filing a case will affect their job or housing, and if they will be able to handle those possible consequences. Of course, even if a person has been fired or evicted, they may decide it is not worth it to pursue a discrimination claim. This is an individual choice, which should be made after gathering enough information and advice to make an informed decision.

Some people prefer to meet with an attorney to evaluate the strength of their claims before filing a case. It is always helpful to bring the attorney an outline of what happened, organized by date and with an explanation of who the various players are (and how to get in touch with them). Try to have on hand copies of your employee handbooks or personnel manuals, as well as any contracts, job evaluations, memos, discharge letters and the like.

Hate Crimes | Massachusetts

Does Massachusetts have a hate crimes law?

Yes, Massachusetts has several provisions of criminal law geared toward identifying and punishing hate-motivated violence (Massachusetts also has a “criminal harassment” statute, Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 265, sec. 43A, which targets any willful and malicious pattern of conduct or series of acts directed at a specific person, seriously alarming that person, and causing any reasonable person to suffer substantial emotional distress. It could apply to homophobic statements directed against a person.  Visit Com. V. Welch, 444 Mass. 80 (2005)).

Most specifically, Massachusetts law contains a “Hate Crimes Penalties Act” which provides stiff penalties for those who:

  • commit an assault or a battery; or, cause damage to a person’s real or personal property
  • with the intent to intimidate a person because race, color, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 265, sec. 39).

Massachusetts also has a law which punishes those who:

  • by force or threat of force,
  • willfully injure, intimidate, interfere with (or attempt to do so), or oppress or threaten a person
  • in the free exercise or enjoyment of any right or privilege secured to them under state or federal constitutions or laws (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 265, sec. 37).

Essentially, this law provides criminal penalties for violations of a person’s civil rights (visit also Commonwealth v. Stephens, 25 Mass. App. Ct. 117, 123-24 (1987)(sec. 37 applies to hate-motivated harassment and violence)). For further information, see GLAD’s publication, Anti-LGBT Violence and Harassment, at Anti-LGBT Violence and Harassment.

In a typical hate crimes case, both of the above laws are charged, along with another criminal statute, such as assault and battery, assault and battery with a dangerous weapon, or assault with intent to murder and maim. Criminal charges can be initiated by the police, or by the victim themselves.

In order to track hate crimes, the State has set up a reporting system so that incidents alleged are centrally recorded (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 22C, secs. 32-35). To report an incident of hate-motivated violence, contact the Violence Recovery Program at Fenway Community Health, at (617) 927-6250 or 1-800-834-3242 (toll free in MA).

How does the law define what is a hate crime?

Under Massachusetts law, a “hate crime” is “any criminal act coupled with overt actions motivated by bigotry and bias, including, but not limited to, a threatened, attempted or completed overt act motivated at least in part by racial, religious, ethnic, handicap, gender, sexual orientation or gender identity prejudice, or which otherwise deprives another person of his constitutional rights by threats, intimidation or coercion, or which seek to interfere with or disrupt a person’s exercise of constitutional rights through harassment or intimidation. . .” (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 22C, sec. 32).

Technical definitions aside, law enforcement officials and others tend to use the following as guideposts for determining whether or not a crime is an anti-LGBT hate crime:

  • Did the attacker use anti-LGBT language or slurs?
  • Was the victim in an area associated with LGBT people (e.g., outside a LGBT bar, at a Pride parade location, at a cruising area)?
  • Was the victim identified and targeted because of appearance or behavior (e.g., holding hands with a same-sex partner, wearing a Pride flag)
  • Have there been similar crimes in the area?
  • Did the attack occur regardless of economic motive (e.g., was the victim attacked but not robbed) (see generally Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 22C, sec. 33; 501 Code of Mass. Regs. sec. 4.04(1) (Hate Crimes Reporting Classification Criteria))?

What can I do if I think I’ve been a victim of a hate crime?

Victims of hate crime violence have three types of legal recourse if they decide to take legal action against their perpetrators: (1) criminal prosecution under the laws discussed above; (2) injunctive relief; and (3) a civil suit for damages.

Immediately after the incident, seek medical attention if necessary. Second, consider reporting the incident to the police if you feel comfortable doing so. If you wish to press charges, a police report will be required and an investigation will often be necessary to identify the perpetrators. In addition to contacting the local police, you may also contact the Criminal Division of the Attorney General’s office at (617) 727-2200. Be sure to explain all of the factors that make you think this was a hate crime.

For support and advocacy, contact the Violence Recovery Program (VPR) at Fenway Community Health. In addition to short term counseling for victims, VPR’s professional advocates can assist you with reporting an incident, pursuing an investigation, or pursuing a case in court. All calls are confidential; you will not be required to provide your name. Contact VPR at (617)-927-6200 or 1-800-834-3242 (toll free in MA).

What other options do I have if I think I have been the victim of a hate crime?

In addition to pursuing your rights in the criminal justice system, you may seek a “civil rights injunction” from the Superior Court.

A civil rights injunction is a protection order issued by the court, and typically forbids a person or persons from contacting you or coming near you (or your home, or school, or workplace) because they have been determined to be threatening to you. To obtain an injunction, you must show that the person interfered or attempted to interfere with the exercise of your secured rights by using threats, intimidation or coercion. This is not always as easy as it sounds.

You can seek a civil rights injunction on your own or with your lawyer, or you can ask the Attorney General to do so on your behalf (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 12, sec. 11H (actions by Attorney General); chap. 12, sec. 11I (actions by private individuals)). The Attorney General’s Office, Civil Rights Unit, is found at (617) 727-2200, but it cannot fulfill all of the requests it receives. In an action you bring on your own, you may also seek compensatory money damages from the perpetrator and an award of attorneys’ fees.

Although injunctions are civil in nature, violating an injunction is a criminal offense (Mass. Gen. Laws, chap. 12, sec. 11J). If a perpetrator does so, they can be fined, imprisoned, or both. For further information see GLAD’s publication, Anti-LGBT Violence and Harassment, at Anti-LGBT Violence and Harassment.

In what ways might the federal hate crimes law help to investigate and prosecute hate crimes?

The Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act (visit H.R. 2647 at https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/senate-bill/909/text) was passed by Congress on October 22, 2009 and was signed into law by President Obama on October 28, 2009. It expands the 1969 United States federal hate crime law to include crimes motivated by a victim’s actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity or disability.

First, and perhaps foremost, the Act allows local and state law enforcement agencies to apply for the following federal assistance from the U.S. Attorney General:

  • investigative, technical, forensic or prosecutorial support for criminal investigations and prosecutions,
  • grants for extraordinary expenses associated with the investigation and prosecution of hate crimes, and
  • grants to combat hate crimes committed by juveniles.

In providing assistance to local and state authorities, the priorities are hate crimes:

  • where the offender(s) has committed crimes in more than one state, or
  • that occur in rural areas which do not have the resources needed to prosecute such crimes.

Second, for hate crimes that in some way involve crossing state or national borders, or involve or affect interstate commerce, and where a state does not have jurisdiction or has requested federal assumption of jurisdiction, or where the federal government feels that justice has not been served or that U.S. prosecution is in the public interest, the Act authorizes the federal government to prosecute the case. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) encourages victims of hate crimes to make a report to the FBI as well as local and state authorities. The Boston field office of the FBI can be reached at (617) 742-5533.

The Act also requires the Federal Bureau of Investigation to track statistics on hate crimes on the basis of gender and gender identity (statistics for the other groups are already tracked) and on crimes committed by and against juveniles. This is the first federal law to explicitly extend legal protections to transgender persons.

Does Massachusetts have a law to protect people who are being harassed or threatened?

Yes. The Harassment Prevention Law, Chapter 258E, allows people who are being harassed, stalked, or sexually assaulted to obtain a restraining order against the perpetrator. Unlike 209A orders (see above), a Harassment Prevention Order does not require the victim to have a special relationship with the perpetrator—the law can be used to protect you against anyone. You can apply for a Harassment Prevention Order free of charge at your local court (District Court, Superior Court, or Boston Municipal Court). If both the victim and the harasser are under the age of 17, you should file in the Juvenile Court whose jurisdiction covers where you live.

In emergency situations when the courts are closed, you can get a temporary order from the police, but you will still have to appear in court the next business day. Finally, although filing for a Harassment Prevention Order does not preclude pursuing other civil or criminal remedies, you must disclose any prior or pending actions with the harasser when you file your complaint.

What do I need to show in order to get a Harassment Prevention Order?

You need to document:

  • that the harasser committed three or more acts against you of willful and malicious conduct that caused fear, intimidation, abuse or damage to property; or
  • that the harasser forced you to involuntarily engage in sexual relations; or
  • that the harasser violated any of the criminal laws in Chapter 265 that pertain to sex with a minor, indecent assault and battery, rape, stalking or the law in Chapter 272 that deals with drugging for sexual intercourse.

What measures can the court take to protect the victim from future harassment?

The first action a court will generally take is to issue a temporary Harassment Prevention Order, which remains in place until a court hearing can be held. The temporary order may instruct the harasser:

  • to refrain from abusing or harassing the victim,
  • to refrain from contacting the victim,
  • to stay away from the victim’s home or workplace, and
  • to pay the victim monetary compensation for the losses suffered as a direct result of the harassment.

How does the victim extend the temporary order?

After granting the temporary order, the harasser will be notified and given an opportunity to appear in court and be heard on the question of continuing the temporary order. If the harasser does not appear, the temporary order will automatically be extended. The hearing will be scheduled within 10 business days of the court first issuing the order.

At the hearing, the judge will listen to the evidence and decide whether or not to extend the order. If the judge chooses to extend the order, it can remain in place for up to one year. At the expiration of the order, the victim can petition the court to provide another extension. The court may modify the order at any time based upon a petition from either party.

What happens if the harasser violates the Harassment Prevention Order?

Violation of the order is a criminal offense punishable by a fine of not more than $5,000, or by imprisonment of not more than 2 ½ years, or both.

What if I have a protection order issued by another jurisdiction?

Provided the victim presents the appropriate Massachusetts court with a certified copy of the protection order and a sworn affidavit that the order is presently in effect as written, the protection order will be enforced in Massachusetts for as long as the order was in effect in the issuing jurisdiction.

For more detailed information about hate crimes, violence and harassment, see GLAD’s publication, Anti-LGBT Violence and Harassment in Massachusetts, at Anti-LGBT Violence and Harassment

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